It ended the constitutional monarchy of Louis-Philippe , and led to the creation of the French Second Republic. This government was headed by Louis-Napoleon, who, after only four years, returned France to a monarchy with the establishment of the Second French Empire in Led by well educated students and intellectuals, [14] they demanded German national unity , freedom of the press , and freedom of assembly.
The uprisings were not well coordinated but had in common a rejection of traditional, autocratic political structures in the thirty-nine independent states of the German Confederation. The middle class and working class components of the Revolution split, and in the end the conservative aristocracy defeated it, forcing many liberals into exile. Denmark had been governed by a system of absolute monarchy since the seventeenth century.
King Christian VIII , a moderate reformer but still an absolutist, died in January during a period of rising opposition from farmers and liberals.
The demands for constitutional monarchy, led by the National Liberals , ended with a popular march to Christiansborg on March The national-liberal movement wanted to abolish absolutism but retain a strongly centralized state. The king accepted a new constitution agreeing to share power with a bicameral parliament called the Rigsdag.
Although army officers were dissatisfied, they accepted the new arrangement which, in contrast to the rest of Europe, was not overturned by reactionaries. Schleswig , a region containing both Danes and Germans, was a part of the Danish monarchy but remained a duchy separate from the Kingdom of Denmark.
The German population in Schleswig and Holstein revolted, inspired by the Protestant clergy. The German states sent in an army but Danish victories in led to the Treaty of Berlin and the London Protocols They reaffirmed the sovereignty of the King of Denmark, while prohibiting union with Denmark. The violation of the latter provision led to renewed warfare in and the Prussian victory in Proclamation of Serbian Vojvodina in Sremski Karlovci. From March through July , the Habsburg Austrian Empire was threatened by revolutionary movements, which often had a nationalist character.
The nationalist picture was further complicated by the simultaneous events in the German states, which moved toward greater German national unity. Hungarian hussars in battle during the Hungarian Revolution. The Hungarian revolution of started on the 15 March , when Hungarian patriots organized mass demonstrations in Pest and Buda today Budapest which forced the Imperial governor to accept their twelve points of demands.
This resulted in Klemens von Metternich , the Austrian prince and foreign minister, resigning. In turn, Emperor Ferdinand promised Hungary a constitution, an elected parliament, and the end of censorship. The new government, led by Lajos Kossuth , was initially successful against the Habsburg forces, but eventually, after one and a half years of fighting, the revolution was crushed when Russian Tsar Nicholas I marched into Hungary with over , troops.
Hungary was thus placed under brutal martial law, with the Austrian government restored. Switzerland, already an alliance of republics, also saw major internal struggle.
The creation of the Sonderbund led to a short Swiss civil war in November In , a new constitution ended the almost-complete independence of the cantons and transformed Switzerland into a federal state. The center of the Ukrainian national movement was in Eastern Galicia. On April 19, , a group of representatives lead by the Greek Catholic clergy launched a petition to the Austrian Emperor. It expressed wishes that in those regions of Galicia where Ruthenian Ukrainian population represented majority the Ukrainian language should be taught at schools and used to announce official decrees for the peasantry; local officials were expected to understand it and Ruthenian clergy was to be equalized in their rights with the clergy of all other denominations.
The Council was headed by the Greek-Catholic Bishop Gregory Yakhimovich and consisted of 30 permanent members. People in Bucharest during the events, carrying the Romanian tricolor. A Romanian liberal and Romantic nationalist uprising began in June in the principality of Wallachia. Closely connected with the unsuccessful revolt in Moldavia , it sought to overturn the administration imposed by Imperial Russian authorities under the Regulamentul Organic regime, and, through many of its leaders, demanded the abolition of boyar privilege.
Led by a group of young intellectuals and officers in the Wallachian military forces, the movement succeeded in toppling the ruling Prince Gheorghe Bibescu , whom it replaced with a Provisional Government and a Regency , and in passing a series of major liberal reforms, first announced in the Proclamation of Islaz. A more or less greater threat was coming from France, where among the seasonal workers Communism was spread by the small Communist clique of Belgium, basically the people were brought into a Belgian Legion, with the promise of a free ride home and money.
Several smaller groups managed to infiltrate Belgium, but the reinforced Belgian bordertroops was successful in splitting up the larger groups of the Legion, and the invasion eventually came to nothing. The Young Irelander Rebellion of was a small, failed rebellion which broke out in Ballingarry , Co. It was led by the Young Ireland movement, inspired by famine conditions in Ireland and the rebellions throughout Europe.
Their failure may help us to predict the eventual outcomes of our current crop of revolutions. Revolutions are violent events. They are subject to the laws that govern military activity. Despite all the nonsense about protestors overwhelming tanks armed only with a pure heart and a working knowledge of John Locke, revolutions are usually — like battles — decided by the equipment, leadership, training and morale of the opposing forces.
In the forces of reaction seem to be learning this, as they did in , and are recovering from their initial astonishment and paralysis. Depressingly revolutions are not won and lost by the size and enthusiasm of the crowds but by the willingness and ability of government forces to coerce. The real problems surface when revolution succeeds. It is far easier to destroy the existing order than to build a new one, particularly because the process of revolution itself is often deeply inimical to state formation.
In Naples in , revolutionary politicians presided over a land where factories had been smashed by angry workers, land squatted on, records destroyed and the economy even more dislocated.
The new leadership was made up of well meaning and utterly inexperienced academics, and they were totally unable to meet demands for higher wages, cheap food or economic stability. Terrible schisms emerged. Workers came to believe that the bourgeoisie had got into power thanks to the mob and then pulled up the ladder after them. Their demands started to get louder and more threatening. They had provided the muscle and bled for the revolution, they wanted the spoils.
Revolutions accelerate. The political revolutions of the spring morphed into full social revolutions by the summer. The left talked of the abolition of private property.
In May the French radical left almost succeeded in seizing power through a coup. It is indicative only. The Revolutions. Part II I. The Revolutions - course guide and reading list. Section notice. Memory in Early Modern England.
Heresy, inquisition and society: southern France c. Get your evenings and weekends back? Be able to teach The Revolutions of to your students? Our worksheet bundle includes a fact file and printable worksheets and student activities.
Perfect for both the classroom and homeschooling! Great for home study or to use within the classroom environment. Download The Revolutions of Worksheets. Download free samples. Resource Examples. Click any of the example images below to view a larger version. Fact File. Student Activities. Table of Contents. Add a header to begin generating the table of contents. Features of the Revolutions of The upsurge of uprisings across Europe Outcomes of the revolutions.
Key Facts And Information. In and early , Europe witnessed its most widespread revolutionary wave, now often referred to as the Springtime of Nations or the Year of Revolution. The increasingly radical protests affected more than fifty countries with France, the states of the German Confederation, Italy, and the Austrian Empire having the most important revolutions.
Most of the Revolutions of generally failed and led to the conservatives regaining power. Nevertheless, they effectively catalysed significant reforms such as the abolition of feudalism in Austria and Germany, the end of absolute monarchy in Denmark, and the introduction of representative democracy in the Netherlands.
Features of the Revolutions of At the outbreak of the Revolutions of , the streets of several European cities including Paris, Palermo, Budapest and Berlin were filled with barricades out of paving stones, carriages, and furniture. With numerous changes taking place in Europe over half a century after the French Revolution of , these uprisings were caused by a wide variety of factors.
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