Irish, Germans etc. They were asked to pick out five or six traits which they thought were typical of each group. Results : There was considerable agreement in the traits selected. White Americans, for example, were seen as industrious, progressive and ambitious. African Americans were seen as lazy, ignorant and musical. Participants were quite ready to rate ethnic groups with whom they had no personal contact. Conclusion : Ethnic stereotypes are widespread, and shared by members of a particular social group.
The Katz and Braly studies were done in the s and it can be argued that cultures have changed since then and we are much less likely to hold these stereotypes. Later studies conducted in and found changes in the stereotypes and the extent to which they are held.
In general, stereotypes in the later study tended to be more positive but the belief that particular ethnic groups held particular characteristics still existed. Also, it should be noted that this study has relied entirely on verbal reports and is therefore extremely low in ecological validity. Just because participants in a study will trot out stereotypes when asked does not mean to say that people go around acting on them.
People do not necessarily behave as though the stereotypes are true. The limited information that the experiments are given is also likely to create demand characteristics i. Finally, there is the problem of social desirability with questionnaire research — people may lie. In another experiment, they informed study participants that, for example, more white males would become nurses in the next 25—30 years, and then asked how they would be perceived.
The participants changed their stereotypes of the group of white males to reflect these new roles. In other words, if enough members of a stereotyped group manage to break into new fields—whether men into nursing or women into math and science—prevailing stereotypes about them would likely change.
Of course, to break into new fields, members of stereotyped groups have to get hired in them. That is where policy interventions should begin, Eagly argues. Our Community Discover how we support creation and dissemination of interdisciplinary research.
Quantitative Methods for Policy Research Improving research methods to advance policy and practice. But research has found that stereotypes are often used out of our awareness, which makes it very difficult for us to correct for them. Furthermore, attempting to prevent our stereotype from coloring our reactions to others takes effort. Our stereotypes influence not only our judgments of others but also our beliefs about ourselves, and even our own performance on important tasks.
In some cases, these beliefs may be positive, and they have the effect of making us feel more confident and thus better able to perform tasks. On the other hand, sometimes these beliefs are negative, and they create negative self-fulfilling prophecies such that we perform more poorly just because of our knowledge about the stereotypes.
Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson tested the hypothesis that these differences might be due to the activation of negative stereotypes. Steele and Aronson argued that thinking about negative stereotypes that are relevant to a task that one is performing creates stereotype threat — performance decrements that are caused by the knowledge of cultural stereotypes.
That is, they argued that the negative impact of race on standardized tests may be caused, at least in part, by the performance situation itself. Research has found that the experience of stereotype threat can help explain a wide variety of performance decrements among those who are targeted by negative stereotypes.
Even groups who typically enjoy advantaged social status can be made to experience stereotype threat. Stereotype threat is created in situations that pose a significant threat to self-concern, such that our perceptions of ourselves as important, valuable, and capable individuals are threatened. In these situations, there is a discrepancy between our positive concept of our skills and abilities and the negative stereotypes suggesting poor performance.
When our stereotypes lead us to be believe that we are likely to perform poorly on a task, we experience a feeling of unease and status threat. Research has found that stereotype threat is caused by both cognitive and affective factors.
On the cognitive side, individuals who are experiencing stereotype threat show an impairment in cognitive processing that is caused by increased vigilance toward the environment and attempts to suppress their stereotypical thoughts.
Stereotype threat is not, however, absolute—we can get past it if we try. What is important is to reduce the self-concern that is engaged when we consider the relevant negative stereotypes. Aboud, F. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20 , — Alter, A. Rising to the threat: Reducing stereotype threat by reframing the threat as a challenge. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46 1 , — Aronson, J.
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Hirschfeld, L. Johns, M. Psychological Science, 16 3 , — Jones, E. The bogus pipeline: A new paradigm for measuring affect and attitude. Psychological Bulletin, 76 5 , — Melinda Jones identified four different origins of stereotypes. We think in terms of the categories we create from our experiences. Those categories clarify the world for us, but they also over-simplify it. At some point, those natural over-simplifications cross the line into stereotypes.
Simply knowing about social groups can lead us to stereotype their members because we assume there must be something important that led to their common classification in the first place, something that makes them essentially alike. We see close up the individual differences among members of our own social groups, but those in other social groups blur together in the distance into a homogeneous whole, everyone a minor variation on the same basic theme. They tried adding new counter-stereotype information.
They told people that over the years the members of the groups changed significantly. They even told one group that they got the names mixed up, and that everything people thought they knew about the groups was completely backward.
To no avail. The original views of the two groups persisted. The things we hear create stereotypes: What we learn from other people and the broader society. We also pick up stereotypes from the world around us. We hear stereotypical talk, or see see stereotypical images.
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